For You Buddhism Articles - Critical Examination Of The Concept Of Dukkha In Buddhism

Critical Examination Of The Concept Of Dukkha In Buddhism -- by Jeffrey Po

These notes are distributed freely to students and primarily consist of personal views. The notes do not constitute or represent views and opinions of the Buddhist Research Society or that of the Buddhist Library -- Singapore.

The Pali word "dukkha" possesses multifarious meanings. The usual rendering of "dukkha" to mean "pain", "suffering", "unpleasantness" does not give justice to this philosophical word. The common meaning conveys the impression that Buddhism is a pessimistic way of life and that the basis of its philosophical undertone is that of dreariness and morbidity. The understanding of the term "dukkha" therefore plays significant role towards the true understanding and appreciation of Buddhism.

According to Nyanatiloka (The Buddhist Dictionary) "dukkha" carries two meaning. They are:

(a) 'pain', 'painful feeling', which may be bodily and mental

(b) 'suffering', 'ill'

As the first of the Four Noble Truths (Cattari ariya sacca) and the second of the Three Characteristics of Existence (ti-lakkhana), the term 'dukkha' is not limited to painful experiences, as under (1), but refers to the unsatisfactory nature and the general insecurity of all conditioned phenomena, which, on account of their impermanence, are liable to suffering; and this includes also pleasurable experience. Hence, 'unsatisfactoriness' or 'liability to suffering' would be a more adequate rendering, if not for stylistic reasons. Hence, the First Truth does not deny the existence of pleasurable experience, as it is sometimes wrongly assumed.

Invariably, "dukkha" has to be viewed from two perspectives. They are:

(a) The Dhamma point of view and

(b) The Abhidhamma point of view

From the Dhamma viewpoint, "dukkha", as seen from the Four Noble Truth conveys the meaning of:

(a) Realistic impressions of birth (jati), decay (jara), sickness (vyadhi) and death (marana). In this context, "dukkha" shows the meaning of the unavoidable trials and tribulations of life that worldlings (putthajana) and to some extent those existing in the other realms of existence (the Deva lokas, the Rupa lokas and the Arupa-lokas and the Lokuttaras) or lower planes of existences (niraya, asura, petas and tirachannayoni) than the human realm (manussana)must undergo. Samsaric existence means having to face all the vicissitudes of life and they are not considered to be very pleasant. Happiness is momentary and soon its antithesis arises. Such "dukkha" are considered as personal "dukkha".

"Dukkha" as in the context of the Second Noble Truth reveals realities of existence.

(b) Separation from the pleasant and to be united with the unpleasant also constitutes "dukkha". Unable to obtain what is desired is also considered such. (Appiyihi sampayogo dukkho; piyihi vippayoo dukkho; yampicchamna labahati tam dukkha). Thoses "dukkhas" are looked upon as "social dukkha" that affects the human psyche with unpleasantness.

(c) From the philosophical and psychological standpoint, "dukkha" is in fact what Buddhist would term as the "5 Aggregates" (panca khandha) that comprise of rupa (corporeality), vedana (feeling), sanna (perception), sankhara (50 of the 52 mental factors -- the cetasikas) and vinnana (consciousness). The 5 Aggregates are the 5 aspects of casual conditions that manifest as the human form and because of their unceasing state of change and flux they are viewed as having caused situations of instability and thereby considered as "dukkha".

Once again, from the Dhamma viewpoint, one can look at "dukkha" in relation to the doctrine of Tilakkhana (Three Characteristics of Existence). Here, "dukkha" is the second component of the tilakkhana -- the other two being impermanence (anicca) and substanceless (anatta). It is said, "all conditioned formation is 'dukkha' (sabbe sankhara dukkha). Here it means that since everything within samara is impermanent (anicca) and substanceless (anatta), constant states of unsatisfactoriness arise and decay. Those states cause stress and tensions. They therefore constitute "dukkha".

It is interesting to note that when the Lord Buddha Gotama addresses the Devas and human (manussana) on the topic of "dukkha" He usually means those 8 types as given in the Second Noble Truths. However when such topic is addressed to humans only He refers to 12 types. Vyadhi (disease) is expanded to include soka (grief), parideva (lamentation), dukkha (pain -- physical pain), domanassa (displeasure -- mental pain) and upayasa (despair).

And so, "dukkha" can be summarized into the following categories:

(a) dukkha-dukkha -- all forms of physical and mental suffering as actually felt.

(b) sankhara-dukkha -- this refers to the oppressive nature of all formation of existence (all conditioned phenomena), because of their continual arising and falling thereby creating stressful feelings, and

c) viparinama-dukkha -- suffering because of change (the vicissitudes of life - lokhadhamma)

From the Abhidhamma point of view "dukkha" generally refers to "painful feeling", whether they are bodily or mental. The term "dukkha" is derived from the root word "du" meaning "difficult to endure". Analyzing "dukkha" in the abhidhammic context, "dukkha" refers to physical and bodily pain whilst the term "domanassa" renders as mental pain (displeasure).

The recognition of "dukkha" is central to Lord Buddha Gotama's teaching and its ultimate eradication is the summa bonum of Buddhist way of life. So long as man is ignorant (avijja) of the many dimensional and multifarious "dukkha" situations within and without him, he is condemned to the cycles of birth and death. The annilihation of "dukkha" is therefore seen as ending the individual's ceaseless wanderings in samsara. From conditioned existence (sankhata bhava) he gains the unconditioned existence (asankhata bhava) and thereby is said to have attained "Nibbanic bliss" -- the cessation of "dukkha" (dukkha nirodha).

In the Second Noble Truth, it is said that "dukkha" arises mainly because of desires and cravings (tanha). Hence both ignorance (avijja) and cravings (tanha) play extremely significant roles in the arising of "dukkha". Craving is mainly the yearning for:

(a) cravings for sensual pleasures -- kamatanha

(b) cravings for becoming/eternalism -- bhavatanha

From the 10 Fetters perspective, bhavatanha is looked upon as belonging to the sixth condition of "rupa raga" and vibhavatanha as the seventh condition of "arupa raga".

The Third Noble Truth deals with the removal of "dukkha" situation (dukkha nirodha ariya sacca). Here it calls for the complete separation, from and destruction of, this very craving, its forsaking, renunciation, liberation and detachment. The Lord Buddha Gotama offers the formula to remove those "dukkha" situations in the form of the Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya Atthangika Magga).

The recognition, removal and final eradication of "dukkha" are gradual processes. As laid out in the Eighfold Noble Path, it means the cultivation of the sila (morality) group, samadhi (concentration) group and finally the panna (wisdom) group. Though they need to be cultivated together, it is quite normal for the beginner to pay special attention to the development of sila (morality) group first and slowly graduating to the other two groups. In all, they are seen as processes to understand, arrest and ultimately remove one's unwholesome (akusala) mental defilements (kilesas) as well as unskillful (akusala) mental proclivities/latent dispositions (anussaya).

The Rohitassa Sutta mentions:

"Within this fathom-long body, along with its perception and thoughts, I proclaim the world, the origin of the world, the cessation of the world and the path leading to the cessation of the world".

Here the "world" is taken to mean the 5 Aggregates (panca khandha) -- those ultimate conditioned constituents of the human. The First Noble Truth mentions that the 5 Aggregates are considered as "dukkha" and since "pleasurable, pleasant and happy" situations are to be found within the 5 Aggregates also, it is therefore implied that "happiness" is also looked upon as "dukkha" situations. This is the reality of living. The process of living, with all its pleasurable and painful moments, is "dukkha".

In the analysis of the Dhamma that is taken to mean the final composite constituents of existence itself, "dukkha" is also considered as "dhamma". One therefore cannot easily escape from this reality. One can however, through personal training and practice of the Buddhist path remove "dukkha" from one's life. The understanding of the Middle Doctrine as expressed in the doctrine of Dependent Origination (paticca samuppada) as well as the adoption of correct meditative practices can help.

The concept of Buddhism revolves largely around and about Man himself. The Lord Buddha Gotama's messages are to deliver Man from the bondage of "dukkha" by Man and not through any external third party nor through divine intervention. Whether the Buddha exists or not "dukkha" exists and operates. However, through man's own ignorance (avijja), cravings (tanha) and passionate clinging (upadana) he is hopelessly caught in cycles of birth, disease, old age and death. Hence for liberation to happen, "dukkha" has to be understood, removed, and finally eradicated.

The Noble Truth of Suffering is so very important and crucial that the Lord Gotama Buddha Himself dared not proclaim it until the three aspects and 12 modes had been perfectly understood and clear to Him. They are:

(a) The Knowledge of each of the Four Noble Truths

(b) The Action to understand, eradicate, realized and development of each of the 4 Noble Truths

Once the above were clear to the Lord Buddha Gotama, He then proclaimed it (the concept of dukkha) to the world and devas.